Our mission is to provide broad-based nutritional information focused on the nutraceutical field.

Research References

Athletic Performance

Antonio J, Can Bovine Colostrum Enhance Levels of IGF-1? Muscle & Fitness (1998). Studies indicate that bovine colostrum supplementation can increase levels of IGF-1.

Antonio, J, Sanders, M and Van Gammeren, D. The Effects of Bovine Colostrum Supplementation on Body Composition and Exercise Performance in Active Men and Women. Nutrition 17(3):243-247 (2001). Supplementation with bovine colostrum (20 g/day) in combination with exercise training may increase bone-free lean body mass in active men and women. Study participants taking colostrum for eight weeks experienced a significant increase in lean body mass.

PubMed Reference PMID:11312068

Bak JF, Moller N, Schmitz O. Effects of growth hormone on fuel utilization and muscle glycogen synthase activity in normal humans. American Journal of Physiology 260(5 pt 1):E736-E742 (1991). Growth hormone increases energy expenditures and inhibits glucose oxidation in favor of increased lipid (fat) oxidation. GH also inhibits insulin-mediated activation of the glycogen synthase in skeletal muscle biopsies.

PubMed Reference PMID:1903598

Berk LS, Nieman DC, Youngberg WS, Arabatzis K, Simpson-Westerberg M, Lee JW, Tan SA, Eby WC. The effect of long endurance running on natural killer cells in marathoners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22(2):207-212 (1989). Natural killer cells are lymphocytes which are specialized to seek out and kill foreign cells or infected host cells in a nonspecific manner. They are important in both immunity and the body’s ability to eliminate cancerous cells before they become dangerous. Studies were done on ten experienced marathon runners to see the effects of exercise on natural killer cell activity. Natural killer cells were identified by means of surface markers characteristic of these cells. Following three hours of exercise, natural killer cell activity was found to be markedly decreased at 1.5 and 6 hours post-exercise (as compared to pre-exercise levels), but at 21 hours the levels had returned to the pre-exercise levels. This could indicate an increased susceptibility to infection following strenuous exercise.

PubMed Reference PMID:90286868

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Brinkworth GD, Buckley JD, Slavotinek JP, Kurmis AP. Effect of bovine colostrum supplementation on the composition of resistance trained and untrained limbs in healthy young men. European Journal or Applied Physiology 91(1):53-60 (2004). The tissue composition of resistance-trained limbs experienced a significantly greater increase in circumference and cross-sectional area in subjects taking colostrum (60 g/day for 8 weeks) than those taking whey protein.

PubMed Reference PMID:14504943

Brinkworth GD, Buckley JD. Concentrated bovine colostrum supplementation reduces the incidence of self-reported symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection in adult males. European Journal of Nutrition 42(4):228-232 (2004). This study provides preliminary evidence that concentrated bovine colostrum protein may enhance resistance to the development of symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections (URI).

PubMed Reference PMID:12923655

Buckley JD, Abbott MJ, Brinkworth GD, Whyte PB. Bovine colostrum supplementation during endurance running training improves recovery, but not performance. Journal of Science, Medicine and Sport 5(2):65-79 (2002). Supplementation with colostrum did not increase plasma IGF-1 levels or improve performance during an initial bout of running. However, performance during a second bout of exercise may be improved by as much as 5.2% in the average subject after 8 weeks of colostrum supplementation, possibly due to an enhancement of recovery.

PubMed Reference PMID:12188088

Buckley JD, Brinkworth GD, Abbott MJ. Effect of bovine colostrum on anaerobic exercise performance and plasma insulin-like growth factor I. Journal of Sports Science 21(7):57-88 (2003). Bovine colostrum supplementation during training significantly increased peak anaerobic power, but had no significant effect on alactic anaerobic work capacity, 1RM or plasma IGF-1.

PubMed Reference PMID:12848392

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Buckley JD, Abbott M, Martin S, Brinkworth G, Whyte P. Effect of An Oral Bovine Colostrum Supplement on Running Performance. 1998 Australian Conference of Science and Medicine in Sport, Adelaide, South Australia. Double-blind, placebo controlled study to determine effect of supplementation with a low fat, low lactose, concentrated bovine colostrum powder on plasma IgF-1 concentrations and endurance running performance. Supplementation with bovine colostrum improves the ability to perform a second bout of maximal exercise following a relatively short period of recovery from a prior bout of maximal exercise.

Buckley, JD, et al. Bovine colostrum supplementation during training increases vertical jump performance. 2000 Pre-Olympic Congress, Sports Medicine and Physical Education, International Congress on Sport Science, Brisbane, Australia. In a randomized, double-blind placebo study, 51 active males received 8 weeks of training while consuming 60 grams/day of colostrum (experimental group) or 60 grams/day of whey protein powder (control group). IGF-1 levels in both groups remained unchanged from baseline, but vertical jump performance in the experimental increased 3.0 ±0.6 cm and only 1.3 ±0.7 cm in the control group.

http://www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/2000/preoly/abs274a.htm

Burke ER. Colostrum as an Athletic Enhancer and Help for AIDS. Nutrition Science News, May, 1996. A review article which discusses the role of colostrum in athletics as well as its benefits for AIDS patients. With regard to athletics, the article focuses on the roles of growth hormones, specifically insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), as well as epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), in relation to muscle development in athletes. It also discusses colostrum’s effect on leaky gut syndrome, a common problem in the general population, but of particular concern to athletes who perform at their best when they can utilize all the nutrients they take in. It is hypothesized that “sealing” the leaky gut would increase energy levels and smooth out performance, especially for those athletes who experience irritable bowel syndrome as a result of incomplete digestion due to protein supplementation.

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Clark J.F. Creatine and Phosphocreatine: A Review of Their Use in Exercise and Sport. Journal of Athletic Training 32(1):45-51 (1997). Creatine and phosphocreatine are important compounds in the normal energy metabolism of muscle. Supplementation with creatine or phosphocreatine can enhance anaerobic exercise performance in athletes.

PubMed Reference PMID:16558432

Coombs JS, Conacher M, Austen SK, Marshall PA. Dose effects of oral bovine colostrum on physical work capacity in cyclists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 34(7):1184-1188 (2002). Oral bovine colostrum supplementation at 20 grams or 60 grams per day provided an improvement in time trial performance in cyclists after a 2 hour ride at 65% VO2 max. Improvements in performance times were: 37 seconds faster for placebo group, 158 seconds faster for 60 g/d colostrum group and 134 seconds faster for 60 g/d colostrum group.

PubMed Reference PMID:12131260

Crooks CV, Wall CR, Cross ML, Rutherfurd-Markwick KJ. The effect of bovine colostrum supplementation on salivary IgA in distance runners. International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 16(1):47-64 (2006). Secretory Immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) is a possible indicator of upper respiratory infection (URI) status. 35 runners, both male and female, aged 35-58 years, received either bovine colostrum or placebo supplementation for 12 weeks. Saliva samples were taken prior to training, monthly during supplementation, and 2 weeks post-supplementation. Median levels of s-IgA increased 79% in the colostrum group after the 12 weeks of supplementation.

PubMed Reference PMID:16676703

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Hofman Z, Smeets R, Verlaan G, Lugt R, Verstappen PA. The effect of bovine colostrum supplementation on exercise performance in elite field hockey players. International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 12(4):461-469 (2002). A double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled study on the effects of colostrum supplementation compared to milk whey on body composition and exercise performance of 17 female and 18 male elite field hockey players. Results showed a significant increase in sprint test performance while vertical jump performance, body composition and endurance tests were similar in both experimental and test groups.

PubMed Reference PMID:12500989

Kersick CM, Rasmussen C, Lancaster S, Starks M, Smith P, Melton C, Greenwood M, Almada A, Kreider R. Impact of differing protein sources and a creatine containing nutritional formula after 12 weeks of resistance training. Nutrition 23(9):647-656 (2007). Various combinations of colostrum (Col), a casein/whey protein control (Pro), and creatine (Cr) were given to 49 resistance-trained subjects for 12 weeks. Supplements provided 60 grams per day of Pro or Col. Subjects were weighed, had body composition determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and did one repetition maximum on bench press, leg press and 30 second anaerobic sprint capacity tests. Resistance training increased one repetition maximum, and muscle endurance and sprint capacity increased equally for all groups. Subjects receiving Pro/Col, Pro/Cr, and Col/Cr showed greater gains in body mass and DXA total scanned mass compared to Pro alone. Those receiving Pro/Cr and Col/Cr had greater increases in fat-free mass during training in comparison to Pro/Col.

PubMed Reference PMID:17679046

Kuipers H, van Breda E, Verlaan G, Smeets R. Effects of oral bovine colostrum supplementation on serum insulin-like growth factor-I levels. Nutrition 18(7-8):566-567 (2002). Daily supplementation with 60 grams of bovine colostrum for 4 weeks does not change blood IGF-I level and does not elicit positive results on drug tests.

PubMed Reference PMID:12093430

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Leppäluoto, A, et al. Bovine colostrum supplementation enhances physical performance on maximal exercise tests. 2000 Pre-Olympic Congress Sports Medicine and Physical Education, International Congress on Sport Science, Brisbane, Australia. The effect of colostrum supplementation on maximal oxygen uptake and flight times in jump tests was studied in 10 young athletes in a double-blind placebo study. After 12 days, oxygen uptake in the placebo group declined 7% while remaining steady in the colostrum group. Flight times declined for the placebo group in the counter movement and squat jumps while remaining the same or only slightly less for the colostrum group. The results indicate that colostrum supplementation improves running and jumping performance in young athletes.

http://www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/2000/preoly/abs273b.htm

Liang L, Ding YQ. [Effect of cytokines on repair of tendon injury.] Zhongguo Xiu Fu Chong Jian Wai Ke Za Zhi (Chinese) 14(5):283-285 (2000). Cytokines possibly can accelerate tendon repair and show great potentials in future clinical application.

PubMed Reference PMID:12516476

Lycholat, T. Dairy colostrum: the new creatine? FitPro Magazine, August/September, 2003. www.fitpro.com Despite limited research on the benefits of colostrum supplementation, enough evidence has been produced by various independent laboratories to support the hypothesis that colostrum can promote small but significant and lasting improvement in work capacity and faster recovery as well as the ability to increase non-fat body mass coupled with the lack of doping results make colostrum a very attractive choice for the serious athlete.

Mero A, Miikkulainen H, Riski J, Pakkanen R, Aalto J, Takala T. Effects of bovine colostrum supplementation on serum IGF-1, IgG, hormone, and saliva IgA during training. Journal of Applied Physiology 83(4):1144-1151 (1997). Bovine colostrum supplement may increase serum IGF-1 concentration in athletes during strength and speed training.

PubMed Reference PMID:97479511

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Mero A, Kahkonen J, Nykanen T, Parviainen T, Jokinen I, Takala T, Nikula T, Rasi S, Leppaluoto J. IGF-I, IgA, and IgG responses to bovine colostrum supplementation during training. Journal of Applied Physiology 93(2):732-739 (2002). Significant increases were noticed in serum IGF-1 and saliva IgA after bovine colostrum supplementation (20 g daily) during a 2 week training period.

PubMed Reference PMID:12133885

Mero A, Nykanen T, Keinanen O, Knuutinen J, Lahti K, Alen M, Rasi S, Leppaluoto J. Protein metabolism and strength performance after bovine colostrum supplementation. Amino Acids 28(3):327-335 (2005). The study was designed to determine the response of muscle protein, serum amino acids and strength performance to supplementation with bovine colostrum. A rest group and an exercise group were further broken down into experimental and control subjects. Experimental groups received 20 grams of colostrum per day for two weeks, while the control groups received 20 grams of maltodextrin per day as a placebo. In the exercise experimental group, serum amino acid levels increased as did muscle protein synthesis and breakdown (compared to placebo), but no difference in strength performance, indicating that while colostrum supplementation did not lead to greater strength performance, it did promote recovery after exercise.

PubMed Reference PMID:15789141

Molloy T, Wang Y, Murrell G. The roles of growth factors in tendon and ligament healing. Sports Medicine 33(5):381-394 (2003). Growth factors represent one of the most important of the molecular families involved in healing, and this review elucidates their many functions. This review covers IGF-1, TGF-b, VEGF, PDGF and FGF.

PubMed Reference PMID:12696985

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Nieman DC, Berk LS, Simpson-Westerberg M, Arabatzis K, Youngberg S, Tan SA, Lee JW, Eby WC. Effects of long-endurance running on immune system parameters and lymphocyte function in experienced marathoners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10(5):317-323 (1989). Marathon runners showed significant changes in white blood cell counts after a 3 hour run, but most returned to normal levels after 21 hours (post-exercise).

PubMed Reference PMID:2599719

Sato K, Li Y, Foster W, Fukushima K, Badlani N, Adachi N, Usas A, Fu FH, Huard J. Improvement of muscle healing through enhancement of muscle regeneration and prevention of fibrosis. Muscle Nerve 28(3):365-372 (2003). Skeletal muscle is able to repair itself through regeneration. However, an injured muscle often does not fully recover its strength because the process is hindered. IGF-1 can improve muscle healing and regeneration.

PubMed Reference PMID:12929198

Schwade, S. Insulin-like growth factors. Muscle & Fitness (1992). This potent growth stimulant found in mother’s milk may help big boys grow bigger. Human muscle cells have a high affinity for IGF-1.

Shawn, D. Ironman, August, 1992. Article on positive effects of growth factors in bovine colostrum with weight lifting and athletic endurance.

Shing CM, Jenkins DG, Stevenson L, Coombes JS. The influence of bovine colostrum supplementation on exercise performance in highly trained cyclists. British Journal of Sports Medicine 40(9):797-801 (2006). 29 highly trained male road cyclists underwent preliminary testing for 7 days, including a VO(2max) test to determine ventilation threshold, a time to fatigue test at 110% of ventilation threshold, and a 40 km time trial. The group was then divided into an experimental group which received 10 grams of bovine colostrum protein concentrate (CPC) per day and a placebo group which received 10 grams of whey protein concentrate per day. Both groups resumed their normal training regimen for 5 weeks. They were then retested and underwent 5 days of high intensity training and again retested. The effect of CPC supplementation during normal training showed no significant difference compared to placebo, but after the period of high intensity training there was a significant increase in all performance measurements, time trial performance, time trial intensity (% VO(2 max)), and heart rate during the time trial. CPC supplementation also prevented a decrease in ventilatory threshold during the high intensity training period.

PubMed Reference PMID:16825268

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Shing CM, Peake J, Suzuki K, Okutsu M, Pereira R, Stevenson L, Jenkins DG, Coombes JS. Effects of bovine colostrum supplementation on immune variables in highly trained cyclists. Journal of Applied Physiology 102(3):1113-1122 (2007). 29 highly trained road cyclists completed a 40 km time trial and then were separated in experimental and placebo test groups. The experimental group was given 10 grams of bovine colostrum protein concentrate (CPC) per day, and the placebo group received 10 grams of whey protein concentrate per day. After 5 weeks of supplementation, the riders were retested on the 40 km course. Then they received 5 days of high intensity training and completed a final 40 km time trial. Blood samples were collected before and after each time trial and tested for various immune variables. Upper respiratory illness (URI) symptoms were recorded over the entire experimental period. Compared to the placebo group, the experimental group which received the CPC significantly increased pre-exercise tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor 1. Supplementation with CPC also significantly suppressed the decrease in cytotoxic/suppressor T cells commonly seen in athletes post-exercise. Those in the experimental group also demonstrated a trend towards a reduced incidence of URI symptoms. In summary, CPC supplementation modulates immune parameters during normal training and after an acute period of intense exercise, which may contribute to lower URI incidence.

PubMed Reference PMID:17095643

Smeets R, et al. Oral supplementation with bovine colostrum improves sprint performance in elite field hockey players. Presented at 23rd NSCA National Conference and Exhibition, Orlando (2000). After 8 weeks of colostrum supplementation, elite field hockey players improved significantly in the 5 x 10 metres sprint compared to the whey group.

Sparling PB, Nieman DC, O'Connor PJ. Selected scientific aspects of marathon racing : an update on fluid replacement, immune function, psychological factors and the gender difference. Sports Medicine. 15(2):116-132 (1993). A review article examining four aspects of marathon racing: fluid replacement, immune function, psychological factors and gender difference. Of interest is data which indicate that marathon runners have increased susceptibility to infectious disease following training and races. This susceptibility can be reduced through proper nutrition, adequate sleep, sufficient recovery between workouts, and avoidance of exposure to sick people during periods of heavy training and competition. Colostrum supplementation decreases recovery time as well as increases immune functioning, thus reducing this susceptibility for marathon runners and other athletes involved in strenuous exercise.

PubMed Reference PMID:93189945

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Anti-Inflammatory

Goldman AS, Goldblum RM, Hanson LA. Anti-inflammatory properties in human milk. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 75(5):689-695 (1986). The major anti-inflammatory components found in human milk (and bovine colostrum) include anti-proteases, lactoferrin, lysozyme, secretory IgA, and a number of antioxidants, including cysteine, ascorbate, alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene.

PubMed Reference PMID:2181825

Hanson LA, Mattsby-Baltzer I, Engberg I, Roseanu A, Elverfors J, Motas C. Anti-inflammatory capacities of human milk: lactoferrin and secretory IgA inhibit endotoxin-induced cytokine release. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 371A:669-672 (1995). Lactoferrin and sIgA [both found in colostrum] inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines.

PubMed Reference PMID:8526014

Hayashida K, Kaneko T, Takeuchi T, Shimizu H, Ando K, Harada E. Oral administration of lactoferrin inhibits inflammation and nociception in rat adjuvant-induced arthritis. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 66(2):149-152 (2004). Bovine lactoferrin inibited the development of arthritis in a rat experimental system by suppressing TNF-alpha (pro-inflammatory cytokine) and increasing IL-10 (anti-inflammatory cytokine) production.

PubMed Reference PMID:15031542

Murphey DK, Buescher ES. Human colostrum has anti-inflammatory activity in a rat subcutaneous air pouch model of inflammation. Pediatric Research 34(2):208-212 (1993). In an experimental system in rats, colostrum demonstrated anti-inflammatory effect on wounds by decreasing the numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (white blood cells) in the wound area.

PubMed Reference PMID:8233726

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General Information

Ahmed, L, Islam, SN, Khan, MN, Huque, S, Ahsan, M. Antioxidant micronutrient profile (vitamin E, C, A, copper, zinc, iron) of colostrum: association with maternal characteristics. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 50(6):357-358 (2004). Maternal characteristics had no influence on the profile of nutrient profile of antioxidants in colostrum.

PubMed Reference PMID:15537722

Blum J, Hadorn U, Sallmann H, and Schuep W. Delaying colostrum intake by one day impairs plasma lipid, essential fatty acid, carotene, retinol and a-tocopherol status in neonatal calves. Journal of Nutrition 127(10):2024-2029 (1997). When colostrum feeding is delayed one day for newborn calves, levels of essential fatty acids and other lipids were much lower than in calves which received colostrum normally.
PubMed Reference PMID:9311960

Davis, PF, Greenhill, NS, Rowan, AM, Schollum, LM. The safety of New Zealand bovine colostrum: nutritional and physiological evaluation in rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology 45(2):229-236 (2007). Bovine colostrum supplemented at 3% and 10% of normal rat chow produced no observable toxicological or histopathological abnormalities.

PubMed Reference PMID:17046134

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da Camara CC, Dowless GV. Glucosamine sulfate for osteoarthritis. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 32(5):580-587 (1998).

PubMed Reference PMID:9606480

Diehl HW, May EL. Cetyl myristoleate isolated from Swiss albino mice: an apparent protective agent against adjuvant arthritis in rats. Journal of Pharmaceutical Science 83(3):296-299 (1994).

PubMed Reference PMID:8207671

Efigenia M, Povoa B, Moraes-Santos T. Effect of heat treatment on the nutritional quality of milk proteins. International Dairy Journal 7:609-612 (1997). Heating milk, including pasteurization and boiling, does not significantly affect the biological value of milk proteins.

FitzGerald RJ, Murray BA, Walsh DJ. Hypotensive peptides from milk proteins. Journal of Nutrition 134(4):980S-988S (2004). Casokinins and lactokinins from milk and colostrum are potent ACE inhibitory peptides. Several human studies have associated these milk protein-derived peptides with statistically significant hypotensive effects (i.e., lower systolic and diastolic pressures).

PubMed Reference PMID:15051858

Jochims K, Kaup FJ, Drommer W. Immunoelectron microscopical demonstration of the absorption of colostral IgG by small intestinal enterocytes in newborn rats. Research in Veterinary Science. 57(1):146-151 (1994). Gold-labeled IgG moleculues attached to the walls of coated vesicles, suggesting a receptor-mediated transport of colostral IgG in the first portion of the small intestine, while micro-pinocytotic transport prevailed further along in the small intestine.
PubMed Reference PMID:7817002

Joseph M, Flesch A. Research shows colostrum to be one of nature's most potent, broad-spectrum substances. Chiropractic Journal (1998).

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Kelly GS. Bovine colostrums: a review of clinical uses. Alternative Medical Review 8(4):378-394 (2003). Bovine colostrum has higher amounts of immunoglobulins, growth factors, cytokines and nucleosides than mature milk. It is also rich in oligosaccharides, antimicrobials, and immune-regulating factors. Research indicates that colostrum can have a beneficial effect on improving body composition, athletic performance, diarrhea (particularly in people with immune deficiency), gastrointestinal disturbances, and infectious diseases.

PubMed Reference PMID:14653766

Kim JH, Jung WS, Choi NJ, Kim DO, Shin DH, Kim YJ. Health-promoting effects of bovine colostrum in Type 2 diabetic patients can reduce blood glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride and ketones. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 20(4):298-303 (2009). Bovine colostrum is known to enhance immune function, reduce fat accumulation, and facilitate the movement of glucose to muscle. This study demonstrates that bovine colostrum can decrease levels of blood glucose and ketones and reduce cholesterol and triglycerides, all of which may cause complications in Type 2 diabetes.

PubMed Reference PMID:18602824

Klagsbrun M. Human milk stimulates DNA synthesis and cellular proliferation in cultured fibroblasts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 75(10):5057-5061 (1978). Human milk contains a mitogenic substances that stimulates DNA synthesis and cell division in mouse and human fibroblasts (connective tissue cells). This activity is destroyed by digestive enzymes (trypsin and chymotrypsin) but not chemicals such as urea or very low pH (1).
PubMed Reference PMID:283415

The Story of Influenza, in Knobler S, Mack A, Mahmoud A, Lemon S: The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 60–61 (2005).

Korhonen H, Pihlanto A. Technological options for the production of health-promoting proteins and peptides derived from milk and colostrum. Current Pharmaceutical Design 13(8):829-843 (2007). Review of current and potential applications of colostrum and milk proteins for human nutrition and promotion of human health.

PubMed Reference PMID:17430184

Kume S, Tanabe S. Effect of parity on colostral mineral concentrations of holstein cows and value of colostrum as a mineral source for newborn calves. Journal of Dairy Science. 76(6):1654-1660 (1993). Concentrations of minerals, including calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, iron, zinc, copper and manganese, were highest immediately after birth and stabilized after third lactation.
PubMed Reference PMID:8326034

Le Dividich J, Herpin P, Paul E, Strullu F. Effect of fat content of colostrum on voluntary colostrum intake and fat utilization in newborn pigs. Journal of Animal Science. 75:707-713 (1997). Voluntary intake of colostrum in newborn pigs did show any correlation to fat content of the colostrum.
PubMed Reference PMID:9078487

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Li-Chan E, Kummer A, Losso J, Kitts D, Nakai S. Stability of bovine immunoglobulins to thermal treatment and processing. Food Research International. 28:9-16 (1995). Pasteurization retained 59-76% of IgG content compared to raw milk, while canned evaporated milk and ultra-high temperature sterilized milk showed very little IgG activity.

Löser C. Polyamines in human and animal milk. British Journal of Nutrition 84(Suppl 1):S55-8 (2000). Polyamines, including spermidine, spermine and putrescine, are highly regulated polycations involved in cell growth and differentiation. They play an important role in the maturation of the newborn’s intestine. They are present in all mammalian milk and colostrum.

PubMed Reference PMID:11242447

McConnell MA, Brooks HJL, Borissenko MB, Buchan GA. A comparative study of immunoglobulin levels and anti-inflammatory activity in four milk products. Journal of Dairy Science, Publication forthcoming.

Poland G. Vaccines against avian influenza – a race against time. New England Journal of Medicine 354(13):1411-1413 (2006).

Schlimme E, Martin D, Meisel H. Nucleosides and nucleotides: natural bioactive substances in milk and colostrum. British Journal of Nutrition 84(Suppl 1):S59-S68 (2000). Nucleosides, nucleotides and nucleobases are all present in colostrum and milk. They act as regulators in the body. Nucleotides affect immune responses in infants. Nucleotides and nucleosides contribute to iron absorption in the gut and influence saturation and elongation rates in fatty acid synthesis. Ribonucleosides modulate cell proliferation and apoptosis (cell death).

PubMed Reference PMID:11242448

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See DM, Gurnee K, LeClair M. An In Vitro Screening Study of 196 Natural Products for Toxicity and Efficacy. Journal of the American Nutraceutical Association 2(1):25-39 (1999). A comparative study of 196 natural products showed that many demonstrated toxicity and cytochrome p450 activity (indicative of liver toxicity) while having little or no beneficial action. Some natural products, including Echinacea, and glyconutrient-containing products, showed the highest degree of NK cell stimulation. Bovine colostrum showed significant enhancement of NK cell cytotoxicity.

Thompson W, Shay D, Weintraub E, Brammer L, Cox N, Anderson L, Fukuda K. Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association 289(2):179–186 (2003).

Tyshenko MG. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and the safety of milk from Canadian dairy cattle. The Veterinary Record 160(7):215-218 (2007). The risk of contracting new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease through the consumption of milk is negligible.

PubMed Reference PMID:17308017

Vetrugno V. Safety of milk and milk derivatives in relation to BSE: the lactoferrin example. Biometals 17(3):353-356 (2004). Milk, colostrum and tissues of the bovine mammary gland are classified in the category of no detectable infectivity by the Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products of the European Commission and WHO. Milk and milk derivatives, such as lactoferrin and lactose, are unlikely to present any risk of infection with BSE or any other transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.

PubMed Reference PMID:15222490

Wit JN. Nutritional and functional characteristics of whey proteins in food products. Journal of Dairy Science 81:597-608 (1998).
PubMed Reference PMID:9565865

Warny M, Fatima A, Bostwick E, Laine DC, Lebel F, LaMont JT, Pothoulakis C, Kelly CP. Bovine immunoglobulin concentrate-Clostridium difficile retains C. difficile toxin neutralizing activity after passage through the human stomach and small intestine. Gut. 44(2):212-217 (1998). IgG from bovine colostrum with C. difficile toxin neutralizing activity maintains this activity as it passes through the digestive tract, indicating that it resists digestion.
PubMed Reference PMID:9895380

Yamamoto A, Wada O, Suzuki H. Purification and properties of biologically active chromium complex from bovine colostrum. American Institute of Nutrition. 118(1):39-45 (1987). Bovine colostrum has a chromium-binding substance in it similar in nature to that found in mammalian liver.
PubMed Reference PMID:3275760

Zhang T, Iguchi K, Mochizzuki T, Hoshino M, Yanaihara C, Yanaihara N. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone-associated peptide (GAP) immunoreactivity in bovine colostrum. Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 194(3):270-273 (1990). GAP is present in colostrum, indicating that Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is synthesized and processed in mammary tissue.
PubMed Reference PMID:2192372

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Growth Factors

Ballard F, Wallace J, Francis G, Read L, Tomas F. Des (1-3) IGF-1: a truncated form of insulin-like growth factor-1. International Journal of Cellular Biology. 28:1085-1087 (1996). Des (1-3) IGF-1 is a truncated form of IGF that is 10 times more potent than IGF-1 in stimulating hypertrophy and proliferation of cells in vitro. It is present in bovine colostrum.
PubMed Reference PMID:8930132

Bhora F, Dunkin, B, Batzri S, Aly HM, Bass BL, Sidawy AN, Harmon JW. Effect of growth factors on cell proliferation and epithelialization in human skin. Journal of Surgery Res. 59:236-244 (1995). Fibroblast growth factor, IGF-1 and epithelial growth factor are all important mitogens for wound healing in the skin. All are found in bovine colostrum
PubMed Reference PMID:7543631

Bricker D. Colostrum: Implications for accelerated recovery in damaged muscle and cartilage, prevention of some pathogenic disease. The American Chiropractor pp 3-4 (1991).

Burrin D, Davis T, Ebner S, Schoknecht P, Fiorotto M, Reeds P. Colostrum enhances the nutritional stimulation of vital organ protein synthesis in neonatal pigs. American Society for Nutritional Sciences. 127(7):1284-1289 (1997). Protein synthesis was higher in colostrum-fed pigs than in those which did not receive colostrum.
PubMed Reference PMID:9202081

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Cass TL. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1, Somatomedin C) blood levels are not associated with prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels or prostate cancer: A study of 749 patients. Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI

Donovan SM, Hartke JL, Monaco MH, Wheeler MB. Insulin-like Growth Factor-I and Piglet Intestinal Development. Journal of Dairy Science 87(E Suppl.):E46-E54 (2004). Piglets suckling from IGF-1 transgenic sows (i.e. sows that have been transgenically altered to overexpress IGF-1 in their milk) showed increased villus growth and disaccharidase activity, indicating improved intestinal health.

Francis GL, Read LC, Ballard FJ, Bagley CJ, Upton FM, Gravestock PM, Wallace JC. Purification and partial sequence analysis of insulin-like growth factor-1 from bovine colostrum. Journal of Biochemistry 233:207-213 (1986). Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is purified and identified by sequence analyais from bovine colostrum.
PubMed Reference PMID:3954725

Francis GL, Upton FM, Ballard FJ, McNeil KA, Wallace JC. Insulin-like growth factors 1 and 2 in bovine colostrum. Journal of Biochemistry. 251(1):95-103 (1988). Both IGF-1 and IGF-2 as well as a truncated, more potent form of IGF-1 were found in bovine colostrum. IGF is a mitogen that controls replication and repair of DNA and RNA in order to stimulate tissue growth.
PubMed Reference PMID:3390164

Fryburg D. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 enhance human skeletal muscle protein anabolism during hyperamino-acidemia by different mechanisms. Journal of Clinical Investigations 96(4):1722-1729 (1995). Insulin inhibits the breakdown of protein in muscle, thereby increasing protein anabolism (the creation of new protein by combining the constituent parts through the use of energy). IGF-1, on the other hand, promotes muscle anabolism by stimulating protein synthesis. Even in the case of hyperaminoacid-emia (an abundance of available amino acids), insulin continues to promote muscle protein balance solely by inhibiting the digestion of muscle, which IGF-1 combined with hyperaminoacidemia enhances protein synthesis more than either one alone.
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Ginjala V, Pakkanen R. Determination of transforming growth factor-B1 (TGF-B1) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in bovine colostrum samples. Journal of Immunoassay 19(2-3):195-207 (1998). The principal growth factors in bovine colostrum are transforming growth factors beta-1 and beta 2 and insulin-like growth factors 1 and 2. Both TGF-B1 and IGF-1 were identified in the first postpartum milking.
PubMed Reference PMID:9682131

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Juskevich J. Bovine Growth Hormone: Human Food Safety Evaluation. Science. 249(4971):875-883 (1990). Bovine Growth Hormone (bGH) is not active in humans. Its use in dairy cows increases the amount of IGF-1 in colostrum and milk, but the levels seen with bGH use do not exceed the range of levels of IGF-1 in human milk. Biologically signficant levels of IGF-1 are not absorbed from cow's milk.

PubMed Reference PMID:2203142

Khansari DN, Gustad T. Effects of long-term, low-dose growth hormone therapy on immune function and life expectancy of mice. Mechanics of Aging and Development 57(1):87-100 (1991). Low-dose, prolonged growth hormone therapy significantly extended the life span of mice compared to controls.

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Marcotty C, Frankenne F, Van Beeumen J, Maghuin-Rogister G, Hennen G. Insulin-like growth I (IGF-I) from cow colostrum: Purification and characterization. Growth Regulation. 1(2):56-61 (1991). IGF-1 was purified from bovine colostrum and found to be identical to both bovine and human serum IGF-1.
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Miers W, Barrett E. The role of insulin and other hormones in the regulation of amino acid and protein metabolism in humans. Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology. 9(2-4):235-253 (1998). At low levels insulin primarily inhibits protein degradation and IGF-1 stimulates protein synthesis. At higher levels both seem to inhibit protein degradation and stimulate protein synthesis.
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Murphy MS. Growth factors and the gastrointestinal tract. Nutrition 14(10):771-774 (1998). Various growth factors are produced in the gut, including epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-α), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), amphiregulin, betacellulin, heparin-binding EGF-like peptide. They are also present in colostrum and milk. EGF promotes repair of the mucosal lining of the gut. TGF-α plays a role in mucosal healing. TGF-β, on the other hand, inhibits cell proliferation and promotes cell differentiation.

PubMed Reference PMID:9785359

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Noda K, Umeda M, Ono T. Transforming growth factor activity in human colostrum. Gann. 75(2):109-112 (1984). High levels of TGF were found in human colostrum with highest levels found in the earliest colostrum collected.
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Nowak J, Olszewski J, Kozal E. Insulin and sugar concentration changes in mammary secretion in sheep during the periparturient period. Reproduction, Nutrition, Development 34(1):3-8 (1994). Highest levels of insulin were found in the earliest colostrum, which sugar levels increased in inverse correlation to decreasing levels of insulin in older colostrum and milk.
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Oda S, Satoh H, Sugawara T, Matsunaga N, Kuhara T, Katoh K, Shoji Y, Nihei A, Ohta M, Sasaki Y. Insulin-like growth factor-I, GH, insulin and glucagon concentrations in bovine colostrum and in plasma of dairy cows and neonatal calves around parturition. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, A, Comparative Physiology 94(4):805-808 (1989). Levels of IGF-1 in colostrum collected from cows on days 1 and 2 postpartum were higher than levels in blood plasma from the cows, while levels of insulin, growth hormone and glucagon were much lower than in cow plasma.
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Oz HS, Ray M, Chen TS, McClain CJ. Efficacy of a transforming growth factor beta 2 containing nutritional support formula in a murine model of inflammatory bowel disease. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 23(3):220-226 (2004). Mice with an experimentally-induced inflammatory bowel disease fed a diet rich in transforming growth factor beta-2 (TGF-ß2) gained more weight, did not develop diarrhea or prolapse, had lower pathological scores and lower serum amyloid (SAA). This study supports the use of TGF-ß2 diets in the treatment of Crohn’s disease.

PubMed Reference PMID:15190046

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Pakkanen R, Aalto J. Review paper: Growth factors and antimicrobial factors of bovine colostrum. International Dairy Journal. 7:285-297 (1997). Colostrum is a complex fluid rich in nutrients, antibodies and growth factors. The antibodies provide passive immunity in the calf, which the growth factors stimulate the growth and development of the gut.

Pakkanen R. Determination of transforming growth factor-ß2 (TGF-ß2) in bovine colostrum samples. Journal of Immunoassay. 19(1):23-37 (1998). TGF-ß2 is the major form of TGF in bovine colostrum, accounting for about 95% of total TGF. It is virtually identical to human TGF.
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Playford RJ, Ghosh S. Cytokines and growth factor modulators in intestinal inflammation and repair. Journal of Pathology 205(4):417-425 (2005) . Breakdown in gastrointestinal mucosal integrity may be due to increased aggressive factors, including an excessive inflammatory response, decreased mucosal defence or a combination of the two. Our understanding of the control processes underlying these changes has rapidly expanded over the last decade and it is becoming clear that rather than being distinct elements, inflammation and repair are interrelated processes mediated by common cytokines and growth factors, with the division of factors as being a cytokine or a growth factor being somewhat artificial. The use of biological therapies, such as antibodies that cause receptor blockade or administering recombinant growth factors, has now progressed from the laboratory to the clinical arena.

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Rosenthal S, Brown E, Brunetti A, Goldfine I. Fibroblast growth factor inhibits insulin-like growth factor-II (IGF-II) gene expression and increases IGF-I receptor abundance in BC3H-1 muscle cells. Molecular Endocinology 5(5):678-684 (1991). Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) is a known inhibitor of muscle differentiation. It markedly inhibits the expression and secretion of IGF-2 in muscle cells while increasing the numbers of IGF-1 receptors.
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Rudman D, Feller AG, Nagraj HS, Gergans GA, Lalitha PY, Goldberg AF, Schlenker RA, Cohn L, Rudman IW, Mattson DE. Effects of human growth hormone in men over 60 years old. New England Journal of Medicine 323(1):1-6 (1990). Growth hormone levels decline with age. This may contribute to to the decrease in lean body mass and increase in fat mass that also occur with aging. Levels of IGF-1 were measured in elderly men both with growth hormone supplementation and without. Results confirmed that growth hormone levels correlated with lean body and fat mass.

PubMed Reference PMID:2355952

Russell J, Feldman E. Insulin-like growth factor-I prevents apoptosis in sympathetic neurons exposed to high glucose. Hormone and Metababolic Research 31(2-3):90-96 (1999). Diabetic autonomic neuropathy is a major cause of morbidity and death. IGF-1 protects sympathetic neurons from death in conditions of high glucose levels, suggesting a possible etiology of the condition as well as a possible therapy for it.
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Sara VR, Hall K. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins. Physiological Reviews. 70(3):591-614 (1990). Molecular sequences of IGFs and their receptors.

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Shimizu M, Webster C, Morgan DO, Blau HM, Roth RA. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor receptors and responses in cultured human muscle cells. American Journal of Physiology. 251(5 Part1):E611-E615 (1986). Muscle cells have specific receptors for IGF-1 and IGF-2.

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Shing Y, Klagsbrun M. Purification and characterization of a bovine colostrum-derived growth factor. Molecular Endocrinology. 1(5):335-338 (1987). A specific growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, purified from bovine colostrum.
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Shomali M, Wolfsthal S. The use of anti-aging hormones. Maryland Medical Journal 46(4):181-186 (1997). While the use of anti-aging hormones, such as melatonin, growth hormone, testosterone and DHEA, has become very popular, the benfits of doing so are based on animals studies and weak associations for the most part. There is insufficient evidence to recommend these as anti-aging remedies, and there are potential risks from their use.
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Skottner A, Arrhenius-Nyberg V, Kanje M, Fryklund L. Anabolic and tissue repair functions of recombinant insulin-like growth factor I. Acta Pediatrica Scandinavica 367:63-66 (1990). Recombinant IGF-1 (rIGF-1) caused significant weight gain and bone growth when given to mutant dwarf rats. Using rIGF-1 locally on hypophysectomized rats showed that IGF-1 could have a significant effecton the regeneration of peripheral nerves.
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Sporn MB, Roberts AB, Shull JH, Smith JM, Ward JM, Sodek J. Polypetide transforming growth factors isolated from bovine sources and used for wound healing in vivo. Science. 219(4590):1329-1331 (1983). Bovine transforming growth factors (which are found in bovine colostrum) accelerated the accumulation of total protein, collagen and DNA in experimental wound healing chambers placed subcutaneously in the backs of rats.

PubMed Reference PMID:6572416

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Tavakkol A, Elder JT, Griffiths CE, Cooper KD, Talwar H, Fisher GJ, Keane KM, Foltin SK, Voorhees JJ. Expression of growth hormone receptor, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and IGF-1 receptor mRNA and proteins in human skin. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 99(3):343-349 (1992). Receptors for growth hormone and IGF-1 were isolated from human skin, indicating that growth hormone and growth factors may influence skin growth directly.

PubMed Reference PMID:1324963

Tokuyama H, Tokuyama Y, Migita S. Isolation of two new proteins from bovine colostrum which stimulates epidermal growth factor-dependent colony formation of NRK-49F cells. Growth Factors. 3(2):105-114 (1990). Two new growth factors were isolated from bovine colostrum with qualities similar to TGF-beta.
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Tokuyama Y. Purification and identification of TGF-beta 2-related growth factor from bovine colostrum. Journal of Dairy Research. 60(1):99-109 (1993). TGF-B2 is found in bovine colostrum.
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Tollefsen S, Lajara R, McCusker R, Clemmons D, Rotwein P. Insulin-like growth factors (IGF) in muscle development. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 264(23):13810-13817 (1989). IGF-1, IGF-2, the IGF-1 receptor and IGF binding protein act together to stimulate muscle cell proliferation and differentiation.
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Tomas FM, Knowles SE, Owens PC, Read LC, Chandler CS, Gargosky SE, Ballard FJ. Increased weight gain, nitrogen retention and muscle protein synthesis following treatment of diabetic rats with insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and des(1-3)IGF-I. Biochemistry Journal 276(Pt 2):547-554 (1991). IGF-1 and its truncated form, des (1-3) IGF-1, stimulate muscle protein synthesis and improve nitrogen balance in diabetes without influencing the abnormal carbohydrate metabolism.
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Ullman M, Ullman A, Sommerland H, Skottner A, Oldfors A. Effects of growth hormone on muscle regeneration and IGF-I concentration in old rats. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 140(4):521-525 (1990). Growth hormone given to aged rats increased levels of IGF-1 to that of young rats but did not reverse the impairment of muscle regeneration, as this is most likely a result of the formation of large amounts of connective tissue which impair growth.

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Watson DL, Francis GL, Ballard FJ. Factors in ruminant colostrum that influence cell growth and murine IgE antibody responses. Journal of Dairy Research 59(3):369-380 (1992). An extract of bovine colostrum was found to stimulate the growth of rat muscle cells, mouse fibroblasts, and hamster kidney cells better than fetal bovine serum. Bovine colostrum also suppressed IgE antibody responses, which are important in allergies.
PubMed Reference PMID:1401358

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